1	Chapter 12: Human Remains “There is a brief but very informative biography of an individual contained within the skeleton, if you know how to read it…” —Clyde Snow, Forensic Anthropologist
2	Human Remains
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4	The Pathologist Determines the time of death. This can be done most accurately if the body is found within the first 24 hours of death Uses certain indicators such as algor, livor and rigor mortis.
5	Rigor Mortis
6	Livor Mortis Livor mortis is the settling of blood, resulting in a reddish or purplish color pattern. Lividity can indicate the position of the body after death. When lividity becomes fixed, then the distribution of the pattern will not change even if the body’s position is altered. Lividity usually becomes fixed between 10 and 15 hours after death.
7	Algor Mortis Algor mortis is the cooling rate of the body after death. At a crime scene, the body temperature is obtained through: Rectal temperature Liver temperature Glaister equation: 98.4°F - internal temperature/1.5 = hours elapsed since death Generally the body cools 1 to 12 degrees Fahrenheit per hour until it reaches the surrounding temperature.
8	Effects that Influence Algor Mortis Temperature of the surrounding environment Type of clothing on the body Wetness of the clothing Air movement Layers of clothing Size of the individual
9	Forensic Anthropology
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11	Osteology Study of bones 206 bones in an adult human Function of bones: Provides structure and rigidity Protects soft tissue and organs Serves as an attachment for muscles Produces blood cells Serves as a storage area for minerals Can detoxify the body by removing heavy metals and other foreign elements from the blood
12	"Most accurate estimations from:" Most accurate estimations from: Teeth Epiphyses or growth plates Pubic symphysis Cranial sutures: the three major cranial sutures appear as distinct lines in youth and gradually close from the inside out. Investigators always use an age range because of the variation in people and how they age.The investigator does not want to eliminate any possibilities for identification.
13	Age Determination Using Cranial Sutures Sagittal suture completely closed Males—26 or older Female—29 or older Sagittal suture is complete open Male—less than 32 Female—less than 35 Complete closure of all three major sutures Male—over 35 Female—over 50
14	Age Determination Using Basilar Suture Basilar Suture Technically known as the synchondrosis spheno-occipitalis, closes in females as young as 14 and in males as young as 16. If the suture is open, the individual is generally considered 18 or younger.
15	Age Determination Using Epiphysis
16	Age Determination Using Epiphysis
17	Gender Differences in Bones The pelvis of the female is wider. Males have a narrow subpubic angle (A) and a narrow pubic body (B).
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19	Gender Differences The ribcage and shoulders of males are generally wider and larger than that of females. In addition, about one person in twenty has an extra rib. This is more common in males than in females.
20	Gender Differences In males the index finger is sometimes shorter than the third finger. In females, the first finger is sometimes longer than the third finger. This is not often used as an indicator of gender as there are many exceptions.
21	Race Race is difficult to determine from most skeletal remains, especially since pure races are becoming uncommon. An experienced forensic anthropologist can generally place skulls into one of three groups: Caucasian—European, Middle Eastern, and Indian descent Negroid—African, Aborigine, and Melanesian descent Mongoloid—Asian, Native American and Polynesian descent
22	Race Characteristics Caucasoids—have a long, narrow nasal aperture, a triangular palate, oval orbits, narrow zygomatic arches and narrow mandibles. Negroids—have a wide nasal aperture, a rectangular palate, square orbits, and more pronounced zygomatic arches. The long bones are longer, have less curvature and greater density. Mongoloids—have a more rounded nasal aperture, a parabolic palate, rounded orbits, wide zygomatic arches and more pointed mandibles.
23	What differences do you notice between these three skulls? Can you determine race?
24	Estimation of Height The height of a person can be calculated by using the length of certain long bones, including the femur, tibia, humerus, and radius. Below are the equations to determine average measurements for both male and female. (All measurements are in centimeters)
25	Odontology The identity of an individual can be determined by comparing a person’s teeth to their dental records. Unusual features including the number and types of teeth and fillings, the spacing of the teeth, and/or special dental work (bridges, false teeth, root canals) help to make a positive identification.
26	Odontology and Identification Teeth are often used for body identification because: They are the hardest substances in the body They are unique to the individual X-rays are a good record of teeth
27	Facial Restoration After determining the sex, age, and race of an individual, facial features can be built upon a skull to assist in identification. Erasers are used to make tissue depths at various points on the skull. Clay is used to build around these markers and facial features are molded.
28	Steps in Facial Reconstruction With a skull: Establish age, sex and race Plot landmarks for tissue thickness Plot origin and insertion points for muscles Plot landmarks for facial features Select a dataset and mount markers for tissue thickness Mount the eyes Model muscles on skull Add fatty tissue around eyes and lacrimal glands Add eyelids Add the nose Add the parotid gland Add the ears Cover all with layers of skin Detail the face
29	One Final Product John List killed his entire family, moved to a new town and assumed a new identity. Seventeen years later, Frank Bender reconstructed what he believed List would look like. It was shown on America’s Most Wanted, and he was turned in by the viewers almost immediately. . . looking very much like the reconstruction. Check out more about this story on CourtTV’s crime library: www.crimelibrary.com/notorious_murders/family/list/1.html
30	People in the News Bill Bass is a forensic anthropologist who has assisted law enforcement with hundreds of cases. He established the world’s first and only laboratory devoted to the study of human decomposition at the University of Tennessee’s Anthropology Research Facility. It is known as “the body farm.”
31	The Body Farm The nickname of a two and a half acre research facility in Tennessee developed in 1980 by Bill Bass where bodies are placed in various conditions and allowed to decompose. Its main purpose is to observe and understand the processes and timetable of postmortem decay. Over the years it has helped to improve the ability to determine "time since death" in murder cases. Hic locus est ubi mortui viveuntes docent. This is the place where the dead teach the living.
32	Anthropologist at Work
33	More Applications
34	Animal Facial Restoration
35	More Information